This section includes case example reports for learners identified as having moderate/ severe/ multiple disabilities. Each report highlights individualized considerations for planning and decision making related to literacy learning.
Background
Rachel is an 8 year old second grader.at Morgan Elementary School. She is based in a 2nd grade classroom. A paraprofessional provides in class support to Rachel and two other students who have IEPs. Rachel receives pull out instruction from a special educator who serves 9 students who have moderate-severe disabilities (grades 1,2,3). A new special educator began serving Rachel in November, replacing a long term substitute teacher. Rachel has Down Syndrome and sometimes demonstrates challenging behaviors or refuses to participate in activities.
The new special educator recognized that Rachel had few opportunities to read and write for meaninigful purposes and that most of her literacy instruction consisted of isolated Edmark activities, word work and tedious copying on worksheets. The general education teacher implemented many rich literacy routines in the 2nd grade classroom, but the former special education sub sent individual "folder" work for Rachel. Below are ideas for revisions to Rachel's literacy program.
RECOMMENDATIONS: Broaden and Enhance Rachel's Literacy Routines
As previously mentioned, Rachel would benefit from a broader range of daily literacy experiences, including shared and guided reading, read aloud, shared and guided writing, independent reading, and word work (i.e., phonemic awareness, phonics, spelling, sight words). Below are suggestions for how the current literacy program can be expanded within the existing schedule to address Rachel's changing needs as a literacy learner.
Rachel's current special education instruction has focused on creating a solid foundation in letter and word knowledge. Rachel needs to continue this focus, but most of it can be shifted to practicing letter patterns (phonemic awareness and phonics activities) in the general education classroom with the teaching assistant. I would recommend that these activities not be paper and pencil worksheets, but more practice with manipulatives (e.g., making and breaking onsets and rimes). It would be beneficial if a weekly focus on patterns (rimes, blends, digraphs) were consistent for both word work and spelling. It is suggested that Rachel shift to learning the 37 most common rimes rather than segmenting and blending isolated letters and phonemes. Given her learning rate and style, she can move along more efficiently and have more tools for word solving if she learns and recognizes how common rimes work in a variety of words (If you know tell, you know bell!) Instructional time in word work should shrink to a small part of her special education session within a broader lesson frame (that connects this knowledge to reading and writing whole texts). Isolated practice can happen in routines with the teaching assistant in general education. Also, Rachel's love of music might be considered here. There are a number of commercial tapes set to music and rhythm that provide practice in letter sounds (including vowels). These might become a self directed center for Rachel in her general education class.
Guided Reading. Rachel should have opportunities everyday to work with her classroom teacher as well as her special educator in small group structured guided reading at her developmental level. First, she can benefit from two guided reading sessions every day, even if one is only 10-15 minutes long (in general education). Secondly, this sends a message that the classroom teacher is also Rachel's reading teacher. I predict she will be very motivated to work in a small reading group "like her classmates." Thirdly, she would benefit from one session that includes more capable peers as models. While I realize that her classmates are developing readers, one peer (different each day or week) could join Mrs. Smith (2nd gr teacher) and Rachel as a model and active participant for this 10-15 minute session. This peer could help demonstrate how readers talk and think about texts before during and after reading. There would be another voice to model and support fluent reading. Having another peer would help the teacher set and keep a productive pace and flow. If Rachel does not respond or participate, as the teacher, I can shift attention to the other student and keep the lesson moving. The regular class session could be very short and focused-brief book intro including activating background knowledge and previewing some pictures and words, guided oral reading with teacher support and coaching for processing skills (or structured shared reading), brief post reading discussion and response.
Rachel could read the same new book in both the general education classroom and in special education each day. (She should read a new book for guided reading every day.) The special education session could be expanded to include instruction on word work, word solving and comprehension strategies and a brief writing connection. (20-30 minutes). The following lesson frame (from Tancock, "A Literacy Lesson Framework for Struggling Readers") is recommended for Rachel's special education instruction in reading to ensure intensive and comprehensive instruction in both the processes and skills for reading:
Familiar reading (5 minutes): Re-read familiar books from previous guided reading lessons, Re-read charts, song words (shared, echo reading, independent reading) to practice fluency, sight words, strategies.
Work Work (5 minutes) Practice making and breaking onsets and rimes, noticing common "chunks," making "new words" (If you know had, then you know sad...)
Guided Reading (10-15 minutes) (or for Rachel at this stage, it may be structured shared/ echo reading of new text--fiction or non fiction)
Book Intro: Introduce new book of the day; give brief summary, activate background knowledge, picture walk, preview patterns and point out repeating; locate some unfamiliar (and unsolvable) words IN text (e.g., names, unusual vocabulary)
Focused Strategy Instruction Model how good readers solve unknown words with a think-aloud. Have Rachel "play the teacher" to model strategies (look at the picture, read it and say the first sound...) Model how good readers self monitor (Read a sentence with semantic error and ask Rachel to raise her hand if it does "not make sense." Model re-reading and "fixing up.")
Coach/ Support During Reading Have Rachel echo read or attempt new text. Coach for word solving and self- monitoring and give feedback. Have Rachel read the book once more (choral, echo, or independently).
Post-reading - Writing Connection (5 minutes)Talk briefly about the book (with look backs if needed. Favorite part? Favorite character? Cut up sentences (Lift lines from text and have written on sentence strips. Read first. Cut up and mix up. Have Rachel rearrange in order and re-read (with a model if necessary.) Discuss and chart story elements w/ teacher as scribe (who-characters, where-setting, what happened- Problem & solution). Or complete a writing extension activity using pattern sentences to continue the theme of the book.
Guided writing WITH TECHNOLOGY.
Ms. Maple (special education teacher) very recently received some recommended software for writing with Rachel and has had some initial training. When I visited she was ready to begin implementing this software. There is currently no adaptive keyboard. This should be located or ordered as soon as possible so that it will be available for fall at the beginning of the school year next fall.
As previously noted in the report from Rachel's Assistive Technology assessment (12/05), she needs an adaptive keyboard and whole word software for writing. While Rachel's handwriting is neat, she fatigues quickly and requires much fine motor effort. This drains energy and attention she needs for the writing process. Rachel should do most writing on the computer. Rachel was quite limited in her ability to locate letters to type on a standard keyboard. As advised in her Assistive Technology assessment report, she would benefit from an adapted keyboard at this time.
Rather than schedule separate sessions in assistive technology, computer use should be integrated into daily writing sessions. This involves learning new skills in both the writing software and moving forward with the writing process. Given the complexity and priority of writing (with technology), this should become a daily routine in special education for 20-30 minutes. Of course whatever she writes will be read and re-read for more reading practice as well.
Rachel has made good progress working with sentences, mostly in cloze formats and word banks (e.g., spelling sentences, journal sentences. This can continue as a homework activity to practice spelling and sight words. With software and computers, she can now move into shared writing to compose longer whole texts of 3-4 related sentences. Journal writing is one example from Rachel's current program that relates to this kind of writing about her experiences. I would recommend continuing this journal activity within the writing session, and use technology to help Rachel preplan her ideas and compose her sentences on the computer. Perhaps this journal activity could be expanded to twice a week. The other days, Rachel could work on sentences that will become a short pattern picture book (with clip art, web or digital photos) related to content units (e.g., Frogs and Toads) or other experiences (e.g., My Friends). These "books" could become part of Rachel's reading bin for familiar and shared reading, and could build background knowledge for content units.
Rachel needs a lot of prewriting support to generate and organize ideas. One suggestion is Kidspiration software (free 30 day trial download available) to create webs which can be transferred with a click to an outline mode. This software also has read aloud features and integrated clip art. Rachel may need teacher support (e.g., white board) to spell words for her web or outline in order to get ideas down quickly. The outline view then prompts the writer about what she wanted to write about for each sentence. Rachel may be creating pattern sentences at this point. For example, after planning with a web on a white board about her family, we completed a shared writing activity with cloze sentences where she constructed pages of pattern text about her family. The incomplete pattern sentences had been typed into a template on Powerpoint. As Rachel copied each name (from her web) to complete the sentences, she would go back and re- read her new slide before moving to the next. At the end, she re-read all four slides. This kind of scaffolding (prewriting and templates for pattern sentences) can be used to help Rachel construct stories and "books" about her personal experiences, extensions of books she has read or content topics. This can be done using whole word writing software on the computer to maximize her output in the area of composition at this time and empower her as a writer.
Rebecca is a 15 year old high school student who has moderate cognitive disabilities. At the request of her parents, a consultant was invited to observe Rebecca in her current school program and to make program recommendations. Below are recommendations related to literacy, many of which were implemented in her program the following year. While Rebecca read at an early second grade level at the end of elementary school, her middle and high school special education programs had departed from regular opportunities to engage in reading and writing.
Recommendations for Addressing Rebecca's Literacy Needs
Rebecca needs a high quality, comprehensive literacy program to support her individual literacy development. The focus must be instructional and activities should emphasize reading and writing for authentic purposes. Rebecca also needs to develop self-directed literacy skills and behaviors to prepare her to use her skills in various school and non-school settings. Literacy skills are critical in our culture. Increased literacy abilities can have a significant impact on Rebecca's current and future opportunities for meaningful participation at school, home, work, in the community and for life long learning. The research on literacy emphasizes the need for a comprehensive approach that addresses various skills and purposes for reading and writing.
Components of a comprehensive literacy program for Rebecca
Guided reading.
Given her early developmental reading level (early 2nd grade), it is a priority for Rebecca to receive intensive expert reading instruction every day (20 minutes/day, possibly one-on-one unless there is another reader at the same instructional level). This means individualized instruction in the processes of reading based on Rebecca's current abilities and needs as a reader. Word work could also be addressed within her guided reading lessons, through 3-4 minutes of focused instruction in need areas through activities such as "making and breaking words" before or after reading whole text.
Self directed literacy activities.
Rebecca's program should include daily opportunities for independent reading (20 minutes a day, she chooses independent level texts). Rebecca should participate daily in supported reading or viewing activities as well. She should have access to informational and other challenging texts with necessary supports (e.g., screen reader software). This may occur in general education classes when other students are completing independent reading or writing. Digital texts provide a flexible format that supports access (e.g., digital books, internet articles, websites, scanned magazine articles or book selections). Laptop or classroom computers should also have "screen reader" software for Rebecca to access challenging digital texts with a read aloud feature. For viewing, she could access slide shows, videos, and websites related to her content unit topics or interests-with screen reader to access text or captions if necessary.
Focused and self selected writing.
Rebecca should have daily opportunities to write for authentic purposes (e.g., focused writing for her content classes, self selected writing such as journaling and lists, and writing for personal communication such as email, notes, cards). Rebecca should have a computer available for all writing. This can be a personal laptop that has all of her necessary settings and software. (Or she could use desktop computers if there is a computer available in each general education class and the special education classroom-and if ALL computers have the necessary software).
It is recommended that she learn to utilize several types of software to support the writing process and to support her output to construct meaningful texts. It is recommended that Rebecca learn to use Inspiration/ Kidspiration to support her prewriting and drafting of writing pieces for various purposes. It is also recommended that Rebecca learn to use word processing and presentation software such as MS Powerpoint with graphics, photos and text. With this software, she can construct slide shows, photo essays and print or digital texts (even talking books). This type of program can be utilized for content class projects related to Rebecca's individual, modified goals in general education classes and to reinforce content (e.g., content vocabulary). Rebecca should also be required to use her developing keyboarding skills for all writing activities. She should not be allowed to do "1 finger" typing. This year's team has introduced Rebecca to word prediction software (Co-writer). It is not yet clear whether this software is useful for Rebecca. It would be appropriate to continue to teach Rebecca the purpose of this software and support her use of it within authentic writing projects.
EXAMPLE SCHEDULE FOR RECOMMENDED LITERACY COMPONENTS
Class Period Activities
Special Education: Reading(40 minutes/day, 5x/week)
General Education Classes (3 per day) (likely daily for at least part of class period for most general ed classes)
Special education instruction in literacy is recommended two periods per day. One period should be devoted to reading instruction and activities and the other to writing instruction and activities.
READING PERIOD: example activities and schedule
Guided reading with TEACHER including word work (20 minutes, every day)
Independent reading or viewing, supported reading w/ TA or teacher support initially, then moving toward independent routine (20 minutes/ day)
Guided Reading (20 minutes/ day) Given her early developmental reading level (2nd grade), it is a priority for Rebecca to receive intensive expert reading instruction every day. "Intensive" means a focused guided reading session, including:
"Expert" instruction means that Rebecca should receive this instruction from a teacher who has professional preparation in the reading process and in teaching reading to struggling readers-particularly guided reading. This may be a special educator or a reading specialist. The moment-to-moment decisions that occur during guided reading instruction (e.g., monitoring strategy use, when to prompt, how to support) make it impossible for a teacher to "pre-plan" this session for a teaching assistant to deliver.
Independent reading. (20 minutes every other day)
There should be various texts and genres available at Rebecca's independent reading level. Perhaps she could have her own book basket or book box with 5-10 choices (including familiar books from guided reading). She could keep a record of what she reads independently.
Viewing or supported reading (20 minutes every other day).
On alternate days, Rebecca could access more challenging digital texts with screen reader software on the computer. These could be scanned texts or commercial digital texts or bookmarked websites. Choices could include age appropriate topics or content related topics. Another possible activity would be viewing computer or digital resources to build background knowledge for content class topics. For example, Rebecca could view "Brainpop" videos that relate to a content class topic. Many videos are available for science and health topics. (www.brainpop.com)
WRITING PERIOD: example activities and schedule
Writing process instruction for focused or narrative texts (40 minutes/ day, 3 days / week ; Special education teacher should provide this instruction for at least half of the period-20 minutes)
Self selected writing
Writing process instruction.
During this session, the instructional focus would be on helping Rebecca learn to use writing software and apply pre, during and post writing skills with support. Topics from general education classes can be used for pieces to reinforce vocabulary and individual goals. For example, Rebecca could use Inspiration or Kidspiration software to construct a graphic organizer on a content unit topic using key vocabulary. She can then use this to write key sentences. She can edit and revise sentences. Finally she could sometimes construct a Powerpoint presentation (or "book") by matching her sentences with relevant photos or graphics (gathered by TA, available to Rebecca to view and choose from). She could work on such a project in class and during writing in the resource room 3 days a week. (These "texts" could also be available for her to re-read during independent or supported reading.)
Self selected writing
Two days a week, Rebecca could choose her own purposes and writing products. For example, she might have a template and ideas/ guiding questions to prompt personal journal entries. Or she might construct a note or greeting card for a friend or family member. She might choose to construct a photo essay on a personal topic with photos she takes at school or home or that she gets from other sources (e.g., My Favorite Classes, Fun Facts about Dogs). This activity could incorporate the recommendations from Feeney and Judge to "improve Rebecca's ability to produce and comprehend narratives..." (p.25)
Certainly Rebecca (and a teaching assistant, if involved) would need to learn these writing routines including the formats and software, under the guidance of a special educator. It is not recommended that all new routines begin in September, but that new routines are taught, practiced and new ones added incrementally.